The Father of the Modern Essay
Table of Contents
- Biography
- Major Works
- Philosophy & Ideas
- Famous Quotes
- The Essays
- Legacy & Influence
- Online Resources & Links
- Recommended Reading
Biography
Early Life (1533-1557)
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne was born on February 28, 1533, at the Château de Montaigne, near Bordeaux, France. His father, Pierre Eyquem, was the first in the family to lead the life of a minor nobleman, having served as a soldier in the armies of King Francis I.
Unique Education:
Montaigne’s education began in early childhood following a pedagogical plan his father developed. He was first brought to a small cottage where he lived for three years with a peasant family to draw him close to the common people. His father then ensured Latin became Montaigne’s first language by assigning him a German tutor who did not speak French.
Public Service (1557-1571)
Following the public-service tradition begun by his grandfather, Montaigne entered the magistrature, becoming a member of the Board of Excise in Périgueux and later the Parliament of Bordeaux.
The Defining Friendship:
At age 24, Montaigne met Étienne de la Boétie, a meeting that was one of the most significant events in his life. An extraordinary friendship sprang up between them, based on profound intellectual and emotional closeness. La Boétie’s death in 1563 left Montaigne deeply distraught.
Marriage and Family
In 1565, Montaigne married Françoise de la Cassaigne, probably in an arranged marriage. She was the daughter and niece of wealthy merchants in Toulouse and Bordeaux. The couple had six daughters, but only the second-born, Léonor, survived infancy.
Retirement and Writing (1571-1592)
In 1570, Montaigne sold his seat in the Bordeaux Parliament, signifying his departure from public life. He retired in 1571 to the castle of Montaigne to devote his time to reading, meditating, and writing. His library, installed in the castle’s tower, became his refuge.
In this round room, lined with a thousand books and decorated with Greek and Latin inscriptions, Montaigne spent the years from 1571 to 1580 composing the first two books of the Essays, which were published in Bordeaux in 1580.
Mayor of Bordeaux (1581-1585)
In 1580, Montaigne traveled to Italy hoping to be nominated ambassador to Rome. A year later, after someone else received the position, he was recalled to France to be made mayor of Bordeaux, like his father before him.
Final Years
Michel de Montaigne died on September 23, 1592, at the Château de Montaigne, leaving behind one of the most influential works in Western literature.
Major Works
The Essays (Les Essais)
Publication History:
- 1580: First edition (Books I and II) – 94 chapters
- 1588: Second edition with Book III and additions – 107 chapters total
- 1595: Posthumous edition by Marie de Gournay
The Essays are contained in three books and 107 chapters of varying length, originally written in Middle French. Montaigne’s stated design was to record “some traits of my character and of my humours”.
Writing Style:
Montaigne wrote in a seemingly conversational or informal style that combines a highly literate vocabulary with popular sayings and local slang. The earlier essays are more formal and structured, but later essays and revisions are longer and more complex, freely associating one topic with another.
Other Works
Translation of Raymond Sebond:
In 1569, Montaigne published a translation of “Natural Theology” by Raymond de Sebonde, undertaken to please his father.
Travel Journal:
Montaigne kept a detailed travel journal during his journey to Italy (1580-1581), which provides insights into his life and times.
Philosophy & Ideas
Skepticism
Montaigne saw his age as one of dissimulation, corruption, violence, and hypocrisy. His skepticism results from questioning the possibility of all knowing, seeing the human being as a creature of weakness and failure, of inconstancy and uncertainty.
Core Skeptical Beliefs:
- Humans cannot attain certainty; while man is finite, truth is infinite, so human capacity is naturally inhibited in grasping reality in its fullness
- We cannot trust our reasoning because thoughts just occur to us; we do not truly control them
- We do not have good reasons to consider ourselves superior to animals
Famous Motto:
His philosophical motto was “Que sais-je?” (“What do I know?”)
The Essay as Literary Form
The French title “Essais” means “Attempts” or “Tests,” implying not a transmission of proven knowledge but a project of trial and error, of tentative exploration.
Montaigne is known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre. His work is noted for its merging of casual anecdotes and autobiography with intellectual insight.
Self-Knowledge and Introspection
Montaigne’s stated goal was to describe himself with utter frankness and honesty. His declaration that “I am myself the matter of my book” was revolutionary.
His Philosophy of Living:
- Self-examination as the path to wisdom
- Acceptance of human limitations and contradictions
- Living authentically according to one’s nature
- Skepticism toward dogmatic certainty
Views on Key Topics
Education:
He favored concrete examples and experience over the teaching of abstract knowledge expected to be accepted uncritically.
Marriage:
Montaigne considered marriage necessary for raising children but disliked strong romantic feelings as detrimental to freedom.
Colonization:
He opposed European colonization of the Americas, deploring the suffering it brought upon the natives.
Famous Quotes
On Self-Knowledge and Wisdom
“The greatest thing in the world is to know how to belong to oneself.”
“I do not care so much what I am to others as I care what I am to myself.”
“We can be knowledgeable with other men’s knowledge but we cannot be wise with other men’s wisdom.”
“The most certain sign of wisdom is cheerfulness.”
“A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.”
“Lend yourself to others, but give yourself to yourself.”
On Human Nature
“Man is certainly stark mad; he cannot make a worm, and yet he will be making gods by dozens.”
“On the highest throne in the world, we still sit only on our own bottom.”
“There is nothing more notable in Socrates than that he found time, when he was an old man, to learn music and dancing, and thought it time well spent.”
“When I play with my cat, who knows whether she isn’t amusing herself with me more than I am with her?”
“Nothing is so firmly believed as what we least know.”
On Fear and Suffering
“He who fears he shall suffer, already suffers what he fears.”
“My life has been full of terrible misfortunes most of which never happened.”
(Note: This quote’s attribution to Montaigne is disputed, though it captures his spirit)“A man who fears suffering is already suffering from what he fears.”
“To practice death is to practice freedom. A man who has learned how to die has unlearned how to be a slave.”
On Knowledge and Learning
“I quote others only in order the better to express myself.”
“Learned we may be with another man’s learning: we can only be wise with wisdom of our own.”
“Nothing fixes a thing so intensely in the memory as the wish to forget it.”
“I am afraid that our eyes are bigger than our stomachs, and that we have more curiosity than understanding. We grasp at everything, but catch nothing except wind.”
“To philosophize is to doubt.”
“The authority of those who teach is often an obstacle to those who want to learn.”
On Truth and Opinion
“How many things served us yesterday for articles of faith, which today are fables for us?”
“The truth of these days is not that which really is, but what every man persuades another man to believe.”
“If falsehood, like truth, had but one face, we should be better off, for we should take for certain the contrary of what the liar said.”
“There never were in the world two opinions alike, no more than two hairs or two grains; the most universal quality is diversity.”
On Marriage and Friendship
“If there is such a thing as a good marriage, it is because it resembles friendship rather than love.”
“Marriage is like a cage; one sees the birds outside desperate to get in, and those inside desperate to get out.”
“If a man should importune me to give a reason why I loved him, I find it could no otherwise be expressed than by making answer: because it was he, because it was I.”
(On his friendship with La Boétie)
On Living Well
“My trade and my art is living.”
“Not being able to govern events, I govern myself.”
“Let us permit nature to have her way. She understands her business better than we do.”
“The value of life lies not in the length of days, but in the use we make of them.”
“I want death to find me planting my cabbages, but caring little for it, and even less for my imperfect garden.”
On Reason and Argument
“He who establishes his argument by noise and command shows that his reason is weak.”
“Stubborn and ardent clinging to one’s opinion is the best proof of stupidity.”
“There is no conversation more boring than the one where everybody agrees.”
“It is good to rub and polish our brain against that of others.”
On Vice and Virtue
“The lack of wealth is easily repaired but the poverty of the soul is irreplaceable.”
“I do myself a greater injury in lying than I do him of whom I tell a lie.”
“Ignorance is the softest pillow on which a man can rest his head.”
“In true education, anything that comes to our hand is as good as a book: the prank of a page-boy, the blunder of a servant, a bit of table talk – they are all part of the curriculum.”
On Certainty and Doubt
“Only the fools are certain and assured.”
“The only thing certain is nothing is certain.”
“Wonder is the foundation of all philosophy, inquiry the progress, ignorance the end.”
The Essays
Structure and Content
The Essays are organized into three books:
Book I (1580): 57 chapters
- Includes early explorations of topics like friendship, education, death, and custom
- More structured and formal in style
Book II (1580): 37 chapters
- Contains “Apology for Raymond Sebond,” his longest and most philosophical essay
- Develops his skeptical philosophy more fully
Book III (1588): 13 chapters
- Montaigne’s most mature work
- Longer, more complex essays with greater self-reflection
- Includes “Of Experience,” considered one of his masterpieces
Notable Essay Titles
- “Of Friendship” (On his relationship with La Boétie)
- “Apology for Raymond Sebond” (His philosophical masterpiece on skepticism)
- “Of the Education of Children”
- “Of Cannibals” (Critique of European colonialism)
- “Of Experience”
- “Of Smells”
- “Of Thumbs”
- “Of Coaches”
- “Of Conscience”
- “Of Sadness and Sorrow”
Writing Method
Montaigne heavily edited the Essays at various points in his life. Sometimes he would insert just one word, while at other times he would insert whole passages.
Modern editions often mark these revisions:
- A: Original 1580 text
- B: Additions for 1588 edition
- C: Final additions in Montaigne’s hand (preserved in the “Bordeaux Copy”)
Legacy & Influence
Immediate Reception
During his lifetime, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than innovation.
Later Recognition
In time, Montaigne came to be recognized as embodying the spirit of critical thought and open inquiry that began to emerge in his era.
Influence on Writers and Thinkers
17th-18th Century:
- René Descartes: Sought certainty where Montaigne found doubt
- Blaise Pascal: Admired Montaigne but found his skepticism too complacent
- Voltaire & Denis Diderot: Saw him as a precursor of Enlightenment free thought
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Considered Montaigne the master of self-portrait
19th-20th Century:
- Gustave Flaubert: Kept the Essays on his bedside table
- Ralph Waldo Emerson: Deeply influenced by Montaigne’s individualism
- Friedrich Nietzsche: Admired Montaigne’s honesty and self-examination
- Virginia Woolf: Praised his essays as timeless
- Albert Camus: Drew on Montaigne’s humanism
Modern Recognition
- National Essay Day in the United States is based on Montaigne’s birthdate
- Université Michel de Montaigne Bordeaux 3 is named in his honor
- Continuously published and translated worldwide
- Subject of numerous scholarly works and biographies
Marie de Gournay (1565-1645)
Montaigne met Marie de Gournay in the spring before his death. A great admirer of the Essays, she became Montaigne’s literary executrix and a notable philosopher in her own right, composing essays on topics including equality between the sexes.
Online Resources & Links
Complete Essays Online
HyperEssays.net
https://hyperessays.net/
A modern, accessible online edition with four versions:
- 1598 edition in Middle French
- John Florio’s 1603 translation
- Charles Cotton’s 1685 translation
- Modern edition with contemporary updates
Project Gutenberg
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/3600/3600-h/3600-h.htm
Free complete English translation of the Essays
Online Library of Liberty
https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/montaigne-essays-of-montaigne-in-10-vols
10-volume set with life, letters, and extensive notes
Academic Resources
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montaigne/
Comprehensive philosophical overview and analysis
Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Michel-de-Montaigne
Scholarly biography and critical assessment
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
https://iep.utm.edu/montaigne/
Detailed philosophical analysis
Wikipedia Resources
Michel de Montaigne
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne
Comprehensive biography with extensive references
Essays (Montaigne)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_(Montaigne)
Detailed information about the Essays themselves
Quote Collections
Goodreads Quotes
https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/17241.Michel_de_Montaigne
788+ quotes from Montaigne
BrainyQuote
https://www.brainyquote.com/authors/michel-de-montaigne-quotes
Curated collection of famous quotes
A-Z Quotes
https://www.azquotes.com/author/10284-Michel_de_Montaigne
979+ quotes organized by topic
HyperEssays Quotes
https://hyperessays.net/michel-de-montaigne-quotes/
Quotes in English and French with context
Values of the Wise
https://valuesofthewise.com/montaigne-quotes/
Curated collection with commentary
Britannica Quotes
https://www.britannica.com/quotes/Michel-de-Montaigne
Selected famous quotations
Biography Resources
On Michel de Montaigne (HyperEssays)
https://hyperessays.net/on-montaigne/
Short modern biography focusing on his life beyond the tower
Recommended Reading
Modern English Translations of the Essays
The Complete Essays by M.A. Screech (1993)
Penguin Classics – Considered one of the best modern translations
ISBN: 978-0140446043
The Complete Works by Donald M. Frame (1958, renewed 1976)
Stanford University Press – Includes Essays, Travel Journal, and Letters
ISBN: 978-0804704861
The Essays: A Selection by M.A. Screech (1993)
Penguin Classics – Abridged version with essential essays
ISBN: 978-0140446586
Biographies
“Montaigne: A Life” by Philippe Desan (2017)
Translated by Steven Rendall and Lisa Neal
The definitive modern biography, comprehensive and scholarly
ISBN: 978-0691167879
“Montaigne: A Biography” by Donald M. Frame (1984)
North Point Press – Accessible and engaging
ISBN: 978-0865471917
“How to Live: A Life of Montaigne” by Sarah Bakewell (2010)
Other Press – Popular biography structured around life lessons
Winner of National Book Critics Circle Award
ISBN: 978-1590514252
“Montaigne” by Stefan Zweig (1942)
Brief, insightful portrait by the famous Austrian writer
Critical Studies
“Montaigne” by Hugo Friedrich (1991)
University of California Press – Major critical work on his skepticism and literary innovations
“The Cambridge Companion to Montaigne” edited by Ulrich Langer (2005)
Cambridge University Press – Collection of scholarly essays
“Montaigne’s Politics” by Biancamaria Fontana (2008)
Princeton University Press – Analysis of his political thought
“The Phantom of Chance: From Fortune to Randomness in Seventeenth-Century French Literature” by John D. Lyons (2012)
Includes substantial discussion of Montaigne’s views on chance and fortune
Related Works
“The Complete Essays of Montaigne” translated by Charles Cotton, revised by W.C. Hazlitt
Free public domain edition
“The Journal of Montaigne’s Travels” (1580-1581)
His travel diary through Germany and Italy
Works by Étienne de La Boétie
Including “Discourse on Voluntary Servitude” – to understand Montaigne’s closest friend
Influential Works That Reference Montaigne
“Meditations” by René Descartes
Response to Montaigne’s skepticism
“Pensées” by Blaise Pascal
Engages with Montaigne’s philosophy
“Confessions” by Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Extends Montaigne’s tradition of self-examination
“Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
Echoes Montaigne’s individualism
Key Themes in Montaigne’s Thought
Human Nature
- Inconsistency and contradiction are fundamental to being human
- We are “marvelously vain, diverse, and undulating”
- Self-knowledge is the highest pursuit
Skepticism
- Doubt everything, including our ability to know
- Custom and opinion shape most of our beliefs
- True wisdom acknowledges the limits of knowledge
Death and Mortality
- Learning to die is learning to live freely
- We should familiarize ourselves with death to remove its terror
- Live each day as if it could be your last
Education and Experience
- Direct experience trumps abstract theory
- Education should develop judgment, not just memory
- Learn by doing and observing, not just reading
Cultural Relativism
- Different cultures have different customs and values
- European civilization isn’t necessarily superior
- We should examine our own prejudices
Authenticity
- Be true to yourself rather than conforming to others’ expectations
- Honest self-examination leads to genuine virtue
- “I am myself the matter of my book”
Montaigne’s Relevance Today
Modern Applications
Psychology and Self-Help:
Montaigne pioneered introspection and self-examination, anticipating modern psychology by 300 years.
Skeptical Thinking:
His questioning approach remains vital in an age of misinformation and dogmatism.
Cultural Understanding:
His relativism and respect for other cultures speaks to our multicultural world.
Work-Life Balance:
His philosophy of living authentically challenges modern careerism and consumerism.
Mental Health:
His acceptance of human limitations and contradictions offers wisdom for self-acceptance.
Why Read Montaigne Today?
- Timeless Wisdom: His insights into human nature remain fresh and relevant
- Honest Voice: His frank, conversational style feels remarkably modern
- Intellectual Humility: His skepticism is antidote to today’s certainties
- Life Philosophy: Offers practical wisdom for living well
- Literary Pleasure: Simply enjoyable to read – witty, wise, and humane
Quick Reference: Montaigne at a Glance
Full Name: Michel Eyquem de Montaigne
Born: February 28, 1533, Château de Montaigne, France
Died: September 23, 1592, Château de Montaigne, France
Occupation: Philosopher, Writer, Statesman
Known For: Inventing the essay as a literary form
Major Work: Essais (Essays) – 3 books, 107 chapters
Philosophy: Skepticism, Humanism, Relativism
Motto: “Que sais-je?” (What do I know?)
Key Influence: Étienne de La Boétie (best friend)
Literary Executor: Marie de Gournay
Legacy: Father of the modern essay, pioneer of skeptical thought
Final Thoughts
Michel de Montaigne remains one of the most accessible and beloved philosophers in Western literature. His Essays are not dry philosophical treatises but intimate conversations with a wise, witty, and honest friend. He wrote about himself to understand all of humanity, and in doing so created a mirror in which readers across five centuries have recognized themselves.
His central question – “What do I know?” – is perhaps more relevant today than ever. In an age of information overload and confident assertions, Montaigne’s gentle skepticism, his acceptance of uncertainty, and his celebration of human diversity offer profound wisdom.
Whether you’re seeking philosophical insight, practical life advice, or simply good company on the page, Montaigne rewards every reader who takes the time to know him.
“I have gathered a posy of other men’s flowers, and nothing but the thread that binds them is mine own.” – Michel de Montaigne
Additional Resources
For ongoing Montaigne scholarship and community:
- The Montaigne Studies journal
- Academic conferences on Renaissance literature
- University courses on Renaissance philosophy
- Online discussion forums and reading groups
This guide is continually updated. For corrections or additions, please contribute to the ongoing study of this remarkable thinker who taught us that to study ourselves is to study all of humanity.
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